Abstract
There are three main eating disorders: bulimia nervosa, anorexia nervosa, and binge-eating. These three disorders are formed at various different times throughout the lifespan. For some, the disorders are formed during childhood due to media, societal pressures, and the examples set before them. For others, they form during adolescent and adulthood periods of life as they are caused by many different things such as gender identity roles, relationships, and societal norms. Because eating disorders greatly alter something bodies need for health, there are many physical and mental problems that result consequently. Throughout this study, eating disorders will be defined, viewed from the development perspective, and then explored as to how they affect development.

How Eating Disorders Develop and Implications for Human Development
Eating is a normal function of life and is required to live and function in a healthy manner. Because it is required, sometimes eating can become problematic when it does not take place on a proper schedule or the proper foods are not eaten which result in irregular eating habits. When eating habits become irregular, the body does not receive the required nutrition and consequently physical problems begin to present themselves. There are many different physical problems that stem directly and indirectly from eating disorders and are even the cause of some psychological issues. When the entire process is viewed, it can be seen that it is circular as one problem causes another and loops back around to lead to continuous improper eating.
Most eating disorders are found to begin during the early stages of life as they are influenced by many various different factors. Things from parenting styles to peer pressure all play a role in the development of eating disorders. The individual struggling with the eating disorder perceives all of these factors in different ways which also affect resulting behavioral eating issues.
Throughout this study, eating disorders will be defined, viewed from their development, implications for development throughout the lifespan will be viewed, and then conclusions will be drawn. Various journal articles that have conducted in-depth studies of eating disorders and different issues related to them will be used to gain greater insight regarding the topic of eating disorders.
Eating Disorders Defined
Eating disorders are basically disorders regarding eating. They are disorders that are demonstrated through improper eating habits which result in negative physical and mental problems. According to one particular study, eating disorders are physiological and physical modifications connected to strings of behavioral disorders (Vega Alonso, Rasillo Rodríguez, Alonso, Carretero, & Martín, 2005).
There are several different types of eating disorders; three main disorders and many different subtypes which stem from the main three. The three main disorders to be defined and discussed in this study are anorexia nervosa, bulimia nervosa, and binge-eating. Anorexia and bulimia have been labeled as eating disorders for a longer period of time and are more commonly known than binge-eating. According to an article found in the International Journal of Eating Disorders, binge-eating was only added the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM) upon the publication of the 4th edition due to there being a significant number of individuals who present all psychological issues necessary for an eating disorder but do not meet the criteria for the disorder to be labeled as anorexia or bulimia (Wilfley, Bishop, Wilson, & Agras, 2007). The article also suggests that binge-eating is now a valid disorder as there are many similar and different qualities in relation to anorexia and bulimia. There have also been studies that show the disorder to be as equally significant as the other two. Therefore, the DSM no longer only classifies those as having anorexia or bulimia with a disorder, but also those who are simply binge-eaters. However, anorexia and bulimia are still thought to be the main two disorders in many circles today. Throughout the remainder of this section in the study, each of the three disorders will be reviewed in closer detail.
Anorexia nervosa. Anorexia is among the most common of the eating disorders and has been the first to appear as it has been seen in different points throughout history in various different cultures (Wilfley et al., 2007). Overall, it is known as the disorder by which an individual stops eating or eats very little. The DSM (2004) defines anorexia nervosa as being “characterized by a refusal to maintain a minimally normal body weight” (p. 583). Someone who struggles with anorexia has a distorted view of what a normal and healthy body weight is and therefore he or she continually seeks to lower his or her body weight thinking that they are too big.
Bulimia nervosa. Bulimia is a disorder that deals with binge-eating and then employs some method by which the body rids the food before it is stored for energy, fat, etc. The American Psychiatric Association (APA) characterizes binge-eating “…by repeated episodes of binge eating followed by inappropriate compensatory behaviors such as self-induced vomiting; misuse of laxatives, diuretics, or other medications; fasting; or excessive exercise” (2000, p. 583). Those who struggle with bulimia also have a rather distorted concept of proper body size and weight. Therefore, binging will often take place to simply fulfill the body’s need for food and then it is vomited so that it cannot be stored as fat.
Binge-eating. Binge-eating is a disorder that has not been labeled a disorder by the APA quite as long as the other two. However, it is still very much a real disorder and has now been included in the DSM as previously seen in this study. Binge-eating is simply that the individual continuously binge eats but does not necessarily rid the body of the food as found with bulimia. Bulimia and anorexia appear to present themselves as a disorder by which the individual struggles with body image and in an attempt to lose weight because the individual feels as if they are too big. Binge-eating actually does not generally present itself in the person as them feeling too big and compensating in some unhealthy behavior to lose weight. Binge eaters simply binge eat with disregard to unhealthy compensatory behavioral methods of losing weight.
Development and Causes of Eating Disorders
Eating disorders develop during all different periods in life from a number of various different factors such as parenting to stress. Some children begin to struggle with eating disorders due to the examples set before them. Many adult women develop eating disorders due to stresses put on them by society, family, or perhaps by inner conflict produced by self-perceptions of what others think of them. For many individuals, eating disorders are formed during adolescence which is perhaps one of the most vulnerable periods in a person’s life. Whatever period in one’s life they begin, eating disorders are found to be caused my many different factors. Throughout the remainder of this particular section, the development of eating disorders will be viewed in more detail as various different causes to the disorders will be explored.
Authoritative role-models to children. Role-models play a large role in the lives of children. Through these figures, children learn mostly what is acceptable in life and begin to attempt to mimic such behavior as exemplified by these particular figures. Unfortunately, even negative behaviors are often formed during this period in life as a consequence. For many children, these behaviors are formed early in life. As this issue relates to eating disorders, the disorders are also often formed early in life. A study conducted on eating disorders among children and adolescents reveals that children as early as even eight years old have eating disorders (Tanofsky-Kraff, 2007). It is understood that habits formed early in life usually carry over to most of adulthood. If a child struggles with an eating disorder at the age of eight, then he or she is likely to struggle with that same issue during adulthood at some point. Furthermore, a study conducted by Bryant-Waugh, Turner, East, and Gamble (2007) suggests that children of mothers who struggle with eating disorders are likely to pick up the disorders at a later time in life through the influence of the mother-child relationship. Parents have a direct impact on children and their development in life as they inevitably set an important example of which is the most influential in a child’s life. Another recent study actually suggests that both teachers and mothers play a direct role in influencing decisions made by children regarding appearance, eating, and exercise through the use of comments and examples (McCabe et al., 2007). Children are greatly influenced not only by their parents, but also by those who are in constant authoritative positions in their lives as they simply learn to follow the examples of the lives set before them.
Parenting. Although many times eating disorders are formed early in life during childhood at some point, it is apparent that they also develop during rather vulnerable and influential periods of life, especially during adolescence and early adulthood. A recent study conducted on the relationship of eating disorders formed in adolescents and parenting skills, or styles displayed by the parents of the adolescents, shows that parenting has a direct influence on eating disorders. The study stated the following:
Results indicated that perceived maternal positive parenting practices as assessed in 6th grade, which promote the adolescent girl’s autonomous, individuating development, were negatively related to the emergence of internalized psychological distress in 7th grade and negatively related to the emergence of normative maladaptive eating problems in 8th grade. Furthermore, results of structural equation modeling revealed that the parenting practices–maladaptive eating link was fully mediated by psychological distress. Specifically, parenting practices have their effects on the development of eating disturbances through adolescents’ internalizing responses [italics added]. (Salafia, Gondoli, Corning, McEnery, & Grudy, 2007, p. 440)
This article reveals that parenting is a direct cause of eating disorders in adolescents along with the internal perceptions and responses of the adolescents. Adolescents are at a very vulnerable stage in life during periods in which they perceive themselves to be the center of attention which causes them to be overly sensitive. These sensitive periods result in vulnerabilities to many different abnormal thought processes that consequently lead to issues such as eating disorders.
Media and celebrities. The period of adolescent through early adulthood in one’s life is also greatly influenced by peer-pressure and societal norms. Society, especially through the use of media, sets standards for the American culture. These standards are indirectly set into place by celebrities and various other persons in media. The standards that most adolescents gather from the media are mostly all about image. Celebrities are seen as someone to greatly look up to as a role-model and therefore, are desired to be like. In a recent article discussing the issue of celebrities and their physical appearance as it influences Americans, Daniel Harris (2008) stated the following:
What is dangerous about the influence of popular culture on our state of physical health is not how slavishly we imitate the stars, attempting to acquire Hilary Swank’s lats, Jennifer Lopez’s glutes, and Beyonce’s quads, but bow little they affect us at all, how they have turned us into quiescent spectators who worship an unattainable ideal so remote from our daily affairs that its exemplars seem to belong to another species. (p. 137)
Americans are always seeking to model after pop-culture stars failing to see how it may negatively impact their lives. Adolescents have much less of a sense of necessitation for wellbeing and therefore, they fail to see how modeling the image of some celebrities has such a direct negative impact on their lives. Limitations, boundaries, and restrictions are difficult for most adolescents to discern and thus, they do not execute proper judgment for situations, such as dieting. As a result of these issues, many adolescents develop eating disorders as they never become fully satisfied with their current image, always seeking perfection.
Perfectionism. Perfectionism is also one of the great causes of eating disorders amongst various age groups. The personality trait of perfectionism often demonstrates itself through individuals as always setting unrealistic personal standards in an attempt to create a perfectly organized and structured world around oneself. This sense of perfection establishes grounds for failure in many different areas of life. A recent study conducted on the relationship between perfectionism and eating disorders suggests that individuals who hold to traits of perfectionism depend upon success too much that they are not as likely to be pleased by personal achievement such as one who is not as quite a perfectionist. Castro-Fornieles et al. (2007) concluded in the article based upon research with the following about perfectionism and its relation to eating disorders:
The main finding of the present study is that self-oriented perfectionism is more specific to eating disorder patients than to other internalizing psychiatric disorders such as depressive or anxiety disorders. Anorexia nervosa and bulimia nervosa patients have higher self-oriented perfectionism than both healthy controls and patients with depressive, anxiety or adaptive disorders. (Castro-Fornieles et al., 2007, p. 566)
Perfectionism is found to be much higher in individuals who have eating disorders. This is because they continuously strive for a particular body image that is personally completely unrealistic. They take any measure necessary to ensure they are successful upon meeting their unrealistic standards that they fail to see how unrealistic the standards actually are, how they have greatly achieved other goals, and how the striving for perfectionism is negatively affecting them in such a great manner. Perfectionism is a spell for disaster when it comes to body image and should be handled with great caution to ensure that it does not create unrealistic standards for oneself.
Abuse. Another great cause to the development of eating disorders is abuse. Abused individuals are found to exemplify feelings and thoughts of insecurity, worthlessness, and insignificance. These types of thoughts and feelings cause individuals to take drastic measures to please others and to also attempt to meet unrealistic standards implied by others as they are perceived. As a result, there is much disruptive behavior set forth by individuals who are victims of abuse. According to research conducted by Feldman and Meyer (2007), the study concluded the following:
Our results show that gay and bisexual men with a history of childhood sexual abuse are more likely to have subclinical bulimia or any current full syndrome or subclinical eating disorder compared with men who do not have a history of childhood sexual abuse. (p. 421)
Although the article only conducted research from a sample of gay and bisexual men, it still reveals that victims of sexual abuse experience higher levels of eating disorders during adulthood than individuals who were not victims of sexual abuse. The individuals who are victims of sexual abuse deal with great internal issues of anxiety and depression of which they cope by means of developing eating disorders such as bulimia nervosa to compensate. These coping mechanisms temporarily relieve the individual of internal stress as their attention is diverted to other issues.
Stress. Stress often plays a great role in the development of eating disorders also. In an attempt to deal with distress in one’s life, an individual often turns to things that either comfort them, such as food, or overcompensate with negative behavior, such as not eating. In a study conducted by Smyth et al. (2007), research reveals that negative moods and stress throughout the day greatly contributes to eating disorders such as the purging in bulimia nervosa or the binging in binge-eating. Finding methods of coping with the stresses of daily life comes natural to humans and unfortunately, is often found in things that negatively affect them which result in more stress. This leads to a circular process where issues continuously feed off of one another which only results in a continuation of problems. For example, a mother who is stressed over the issue of dealing with the pressures of her job makes her too tired to deal with her children when she gets home in the evenings. Therefore, she turns to food and binges. She begins to gain weight which results in her becoming a bit slower and more tired at work. Even more pressure is put on her at work due to the slack found in her performance and thus, she goes home to binge eat in an attempt to deal with the stress again. This cycle continues which only leads to more distress and various other problems for the mother.
Gender identity roles. Another form of stress, to be called societal stress in this particular study, also plays a great role in the development of eating disorders. Such stress is placed upon individuals to fulfill a particular role set forth by society, such as the definitions of masculinity. Men are expected to be larger than women, overall. They are thought to be taller, weigh more, and have greater discernable and apparent muscle mass. This societal stress causes men to feel the need to meet up to these standards set forth by society. In some cases, it leads to men compensating by forming eating disorders, according to a recent study conducted by Mussap (2008). Some men feel the need to meet up to the expectations of society according to the gender roles and inadvertently develop eating disorders as a result.
The same societal stress is placed upon women as they are expected to fit a particular image being smaller than men in shape, height, and not as muscular. For some, and perhaps most women, fitting into such an image is extremely difficult and challenging as heredity has greatly influenced their larger-than-societal-standards shape. What some of these women fail to realize, is that fitting this image is impossible for them. However, they still take extreme measures to fulfill the image by forming eating disorders such as starving themselves or having episodes of binging and purging, also known as bulimia. Unfortunately, the pressure to meet these standards is so great that many individuals are willing to sacrifice health and wellbeing for image.
Relationships. Sometimes, the stress of fitting a particular image is obtained by the perception of others for the desire to be involved with someone romantically. To enter into a romantic relationship some individuals feel the need to fit a particular image while others who are already in a relationship feel the need to either maintain or obtain an image to please their partner. In a recent study conducted by Boyes, Fletcher, and Latner (2007), the research reveals that partners of individuals in intimate relationships actually play a large role in the development of eating disorders as they often feel the need to diet in unhealthy ways depending upon several different factors according to gender. Whatever the case may be, partners within relationships can play a great role in self-perceptions which can ultimately lead to eating disorders.
There are many various different reasons for which an individual may develop an eating disorder and it occurs throughout many different periods of life; from early childhood and all throughout adulthood. Many children and adolescents follow the examples of role-models in their lives as set forth by teachers and parents. Pressure to meet up to societal standards which is often reinforced by peers can also lead to the development of an eating disorder. Many strive for perfection as they desire to have the perfect body as seen by their favorite celebrity. Other times, previous childhood abuse or daily stresses are the causes of eating disorders. Whatever the scenario may be, it is understood that there are many different things throughout life that can cause the onset of an eating disorder. Eating disorders are often found to be methods for coping with other issues in life. Unfortunately, whatever the cause may be for the disorder, it only creates more issues for individuals and can greatly impact development throughout the lifespan later in life.
Eating Disorders’ Affects on Development
There are many various different ways that eating disorders affect an individual’s development from issues such as cyclical stress patterns which negatively affect one’s overall physical health to psychological issues which negatively affect one’s mental health. These different issues arise during all different periods throughout life, too. Sometimes children experience unnecessary cyclical stress patterns due to eating disorder issues. Other times adults experience difficulties with proper blood flow throughout the body which could lead to problems with the heart and various other organs in one’s body. Whatever the problem may be, issues related to the affects of eating disorders are found to be cyclical in nature in that one problem feeds into another problem and eventually loops back around to keep the circular process going thus, resulting in more problems than one had started with. Several of these issues resulting from eating disorders will be viewed further in detail throughout the remainder of this section.
Physical health. Physical bodies require food for nutritional value in order to function properly as they were designed to do. In the event that malnutrition occurs, the body begins to experience physical problems that prevent proper and healthy functioning. There are many different ways that malnutrition occurs such as through eating disorders. When one ceases to eat or demonstrates episodes of binging and purging, the body is no longer receiving the necessary nutrition adequate for proper health. Therefore, it is inevitable that those who have eating disorders experience physical problems as a result. As recent study conducted by Mond and Hay (2007) reveals, the following was stated regarding functional impairment as a result of eating disorders:
Participants who reported regular eating disorder behaviors had higher levels of functional impairment than those who did not. This was the case for each of the three behaviors—binge eating, purging and fasting—assessed and for both men and women, although differences between purgers and nonpurgers did not reach statistical significance. (p. 394)
This study shows that there is an obvious correlation to functional impairment due to physical problems which are directly caused by eating disorders. The impairment from physical problems prevents the individuals from functioning properly in normal daily roles. Lack of proper functioning in roles usually leads to other problems also. Again, this demonstrates the circular process of one problem leading to another.
There are several different physical problems that arise as a result of eating disorders. Depending upon the age at which the disorder began, someone at an earlier age may experience more problems than someone who began experiencing a disorder later in life. One of the problems that results from eating disorders is stunted growth. When the body does not receive adequate nutrition it does not grow properly. Favaro et al. (2007) revealed the following in a recent study:
The present study confirmed that in AN [Anorexia Nervosa] cases with onset before the age of 16, an impairment of stature due to malnutrition can occur. Furthermore, the impairment is a direct function of the amount of weight loss and age of onset of AN. However, it is noteworthy that, when participants with early onset were excluded, the relationship between low height and AN was still significant. (p. 552)
The study shows that there is a correlation between eating disorders and physical growth impairment. Malnutrition greatly impairs the physical capabilities of one’s body to grow as it should in a proper manner.
Another physical problem that is experienced as a result of eating disorders is the lack of proper organ functioning. Organs need proper blood flow to fully function in a healthy manner. When an individual has an eating disorder, the blood flow is restricted and weakened. A study conducted by Frank et al. (2007) mentions problems with the brain functioning properly due to poor blood flow while an individual is currently ill with an eating disorder, but the study revealed that there appears to be no lasting blood flow affects to the brain once the person has fully recovered from the disorder. However, there are still lasting affects from eating disorders such as issues with maintaining or gaining weight and with growth impairment. These affects have a lasting influence on life.
Mental health. It is apparent that eating disorders greatly affect physical health, but they also play a large role in mental health. Eating disorders stem from disorderly cognitions whether it is how the media affects the individual or examples set for them by their parents. As discussed previously, eating disorders play a role in a circular process that feeds one problem on to another until it loops back around. Therefore, eating disorders cause many of the problems from which they arise such as stress, setting bad examples, unrealistic expectations, etc. Many of the articles presented previously in this study show how eating disorders are the cause of many mental issues. One article that speaks directly about the issue states individuals who currently experience the disorder of bulimia, specifically, find great problems in psychosocial impairment (Spoor, Stice, Burton, & Bohon, 2007). Eating disorders feed already present mental disturbances and negatively impact self-perception. One who already struggles with insecurity and low self-esteem will like have more experiences with these issues upon the onset of an eating disorder.
Eating disorders are a very real part of many individual’s lives. They greatly affect them in many different ways physically and mentally. These effects sometimes carry on with the individual for the remainder of their lives even if he or she fully recovers from the disorder. Sometimes the person may experience issues with weight their entire lives or problems with inferiority as their self-esteem is too low. Whatever the case may be, there are many problems that result from eating disorders and they all play a great role in the development of peoples’ lives and personalities.
Unfortunately, many people experience eating disorders sometime throughout their lives. Whether it is from the example set forth by their mothers and teachers or they actually develop a disorder themselves due to being a perfectionist about their image, many people encounter and experience eating disorders and their effects at some point in life. These effects influence the American society and play a role in many other aspects of life such as the education provided to children in schools, the celebrities that appear on television and the treatment options provided at healthcare centers. However or wherever eating disorders may appear, it certainly affects many more people than just the individuals that actually have the disorders.
This study has explored several areas of eating disorders. First it reviewed the definition of eating disorders as it explained the three major disorders: bulimia nervosa, anorexia nervosa, and binge-eating. Bulimia is the disorder that is found to have binge and purge episodes, anorexia has episodes of starving oneself or fasting, and binge-eating is simply excessively eating too much food at one time.
All of these disorders are found to manifest themselves in various age groups of people for many different reasons. Eating disorders are found in children as early as eight years old all the way up through adulthood. They develop for various different reasons from things such as being a perfectionist, examples set by authoritative figures, parenting styles, celebrity images, etc. All of these different factors play a large role in the development of disorders. Unfortunately, most all of them are difficult to avoid as they are a natural part of normal experiences throughout life.
There are also many effects from eating disorders that influence an individual’s physical and mental health. Physical problems such as difficulty maintaining or gaining weight, organ problems, blood flow, and impairment of physical growth arise consequently from the disorders. As eating disorders are found to play a role in a circular process, they feed into problems such as insecurity and low self-esteem, which are problems that fed into the actual development of the disorders. They continue in the circular process until the cycle is eventually broken by some method of intervention.
For many people, eating disorders are a very real and personal part of their lives. For others, it is simply only something that has been seen on television or learned about in a health class during high school. Fortunately, there is much help to be offered for eating disorders as they have become so prevalent in today’s society. From educational classes to treatment centers all over America, there are many places open and ready to help the hurting and the sick. Hopefully through education and treatment, America will be restored in a manner so inner beauty can once again become the focus of this culture.

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This paper was authored by Avery Via, Spring 2008, for the graduate counseling course Human Development. The professor for the class was Anthony Centore Ph.D. www.thriveboston.com.